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When and how to provide feedback and guidance to athletes? – How findings from sports psychology and pedagogy can improve coaching interventions to improve self-regulation in training
Sports Coaching Plan
In professional sports coaching, the type and method of augmented information that a coach chooses to use in communicating and training individual athletes can have a significant impact on skill development and performance. Drawing on insights from psychology, pedagogy and sports science, this position paper presents a practitioner-based approach that addresses complex issues. In the logic of ecological dynamics, practice is understood as the search for functional solutions to performance, and augmented feedback is outlined as an instructional constraint to lead to the self-regulation of athletes’ behavior during training. Using a team sports paradigm, we present a communication model of skill training for practical application in the context of a specialist coaching role using a constraint-driven approach (CLA). In addition, based on the principles of non-linear pedagogy and using the recently introduced periodization of skills training (PoST) framework, the proposed model can be applied to the pedagogical constraints of feedback and teaching the practitioner during practice. Specifically, the three phases of skill development and training of the PoST framework (1) directly influence the manipulation of constraints in practice design and (2) indirectly influence coaches’ selection of external (coach-driven) information. These in turn are intended to guide practitioners on when and how to use different oral teaching methodologies and to support the design of effective skill learning environments, and some practical guidelines for the teaching process are suggested.
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Coaches strive to take steps that effectively support each athlete’s progress toward specific goals in the competition and training environment. Athlete learning is critical to this progress, and an important tool for coaches is the effective use of verbal instructions and feedback (More and Franks, 1996). Current research confirms that verbal instruction is a primary activity performed by coaches at all levels (Potrac et al., 2000; Hodges and Franks, 2002). Various characteristics of verbal instruction, such as timing, nature, and intent, have been studied and found to have significant effects on athletes’ learning and performance (Davids et al., 2008; Cassidy et al., 2009; Klatt and Noël, 2019). . With this in mind, providing constructive feedback (including verbal guidance, feedback, praise, and criticism) has long been considered a core psychological and educational ability of athletic trainers to design learning environments. (Holding, 1965; see Chow, for a more recent view). 2013; Button et al., 2020). In particular, justifying the types and methods of verbal communication that coaches choose to use (or not use) with individual athletes will support their skill development and discovery of problem solving, and can likely make a difference in each athlete’s development and sport. performance success (Partington et al., 2014; Correia et al., 2019). For the purposes of this article, augmented information is considered an instructional constraint on motor learning, using ecological reasoning (Chow et al., 2016; for an original view, see Newell, 1986). This constraint takes the form of verbal feedback and guidance provided by external agents (coaches, trainers, sport scientists, teachers, parents, educators, peers, etc.; Handford et al., 1997). In terms of the learning experience, the main goals of verbal feedback and instruction (often integrated with other sensory modalities such as vision and proprioception) have been stated as follows: Skill resources (acquisition and improvement) within the training environment” (Correia et al., 2019, p. 126). To support this goal during learning, it is of utmost importance that sports coaches and teachers have practical design models that support the provision of verbal feedback and guidance to athletes during coaching interventions (Newell and Ranganathan, 2010; Chow, 2013). discussions within non-linear pedagogy and constraint-based frameworks).
From a non-linear pedagogical perspective, augmented verbal information is understood as an instructional constraint, requiring pedagogical expertise to determine what, when, and why verbal information is provided to athletes. Therefore, coaching behavior should be based on a comprehensive rationale for successful implementation and should be used as part of the sports coaching learning design. We present a novel skill training communication model for using augmented information as an educational constraint to guide an athlete’s activity during performance preparation for . Here, we focus on the use of verbal feedback and guidance in somewhat unique coaching contexts such as “specialist coaching” (i.e., coaches responsible for individual or small group training to improve an athlete’s position-specific skills). Otte et al., 2019a, 2020a).
To introduce and support the communication model of skills training, this article is divided into three parts. Parts A and B present an ecological dynamics rationale model for providing augmented verbal feedback during practice (i.e., Part A) and a skill training termination framework (i.e., Part B). Part C introduces communication while providing a theoretical foundation. Model. This model of coaching communication is further motivated by the concern that traditional coaching strategies and processes often “stick to established or intuitive teaching methods” (Wulf, 2013, p. 97). Reasons for these concerns include the possible lack of a theoretical framework for providing verbal instruction and feedback in professional training programs. This limitation stems from the assumption that “there is relatively little research on coaching” (Partington et al., 2014, p. 404) and that “pedagogically focused coaching research” has only recently begun to emerge. (Vinson et al., 2016, p. 54; see also Uehara et al., 2016). The purpose of this article is therefore to help coaches rethink the role and application of verbal feedback and instruction in the context of skill training. It builds on the principle of ecological dynamics for extended feedback presented in Part A and later in Part B [Periodicity of Skills Training (PoST) Framework] and Part C (Communication Model of Skills Training).
Feedback and instructions (whether they include verbal information sources, feedback, and/or other means) are considered educational constraints and constitute augmented feedback (Annett, 1969; Sigrist et al., 2013) that is typically provided to the learner by an external agent. During practice and training (Handford et al., 1997). Learning constraints, such as extended feedback during learning, are distinct from the ubiquitous internal feedback processes that naturally occur in individuals engaged in exploratory or externally directed learning experiences in a representative training environment (Vereijken and Whiting, 1990). Although the experience of endogenous feedback (such as sensory affect) is necessary during learning, externally provided feedback and direction or instructional constraints carefully applied by coaches support, guide, and supplement learning. Studies have shown that it can (Holding, 1965; Newell et al., 1985; Sigrist et al., 2013).
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From the principle of ecological dynamics, information regulates behavior, and practice has been conceptualized as the search for functional solutions to tasks and related performance behaviors that can be stabilized by experience and learning (Newell, 1991; Handford et al., 1997). Search activity during exercise supports the self-regulation of athletes finding quality sources of information to modify their behavior. Functional behavioral solutions exist within the possibilities (opportunities for action; Rietveld and Kiverstein, 2014; Strafford et al., 2020) that surround students in the performance environment (Button et al., 2020). A key role of athletic coaches and teachers is to guide students in exploring the landscape of possibilities, and the application of educational constraints is a powerful tool that is used cautiously in critical exploratory activities (Newell, 1986). Learning practice is conceptualized here as managing a search process that can be described as “learning to pay attention to the informational variables of the task and to modify behavior in terms of the informational variables” (Pacheco et al., 2019, p. 3).
The rationale for using augmented verbal information and feedback to support search activity and guide students to functional advantages in the landscape is quite different from traditional educational models (Davids et al., 2008; Ford et al., 2010). Traditional teaching methods are based on specific detailed provision of movement templates for repetitive practice (providing the “best” way to perform a certain movement) and corrective feedback when repeating movement techniques (Davids et al., 2008). These prescriptive coaching approaches are likely to lead to an overuse of verbal information and feedback, which can hinder athlete growth by affecting opportunities for self-regulation (Davids et al., 2008). Partington and Cushion, 2011). Practice (Handford et al., 1997; Davids, 2015). Therefore, from the logical perspective of ecological dynamics, the judicious use or omission of augmented information (i.e., verbal and integrated with other modes of feedback and instruction) should be critical to the sport’s self-regulated exploratory and retrieval activity.
The current article focuses specifically on introducing a new communication model of skills training (i.e., Part C). This model focuses in particular on supporting the provision of limitations in education.
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